Stretch injury or avulsion of ≥ 1 cervical roots, brachial plexus
IMAGING
General Features
CT Findings
MR Findings
Nonvascular Interventions
Imaging Recommendations
DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS
PATHOLOGY
General Features
Staging, Grading, & Classification
Gross Pathologic & Surgical Features
Microscopic Features
CLINICAL ISSUES
Presentation
Demographics
Natural History & Prognosis
Treatment
DIAGNOSTIC CHECKLIST
Consider
Image Interpretation Pearls
Selected References
Clifton WE et al: Delayed myelopathy in patients with traumatic preganglionic brachial plexus avulsion injuries. World Neurosurg. 122:e1562-9, 2019
Gunes A et al: Brachial plexus ultrasound and MRI in children with brachial plexus birth injury. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 39(9):1745-50, 2018
Kachramanoglou C et al: Long-term outcome of brachial plexus reimplantation after complete brachial plexus avulsion injury. World Neurosurg. 103:28-36, 2017
Lutz AM et al: MR imaging of the brachial plexus. Neuroimaging Clin N Am. 24(1):91-108, 2014
Chhabra A et al: High-resolution 3T MR neurography of the brachial plexus and its branches, with emphasis on 3D imaging. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 34(3):486-97, 2013
Rhee PC et al: Concomitant traumatic spinal cord and brachial plexus injuries in adult patients. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 93(24):2271-7, 2011
Aralasmak A et al: MR imaging findings in brachial plexopathy with thoracic outlet syndrome. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 31(3):410-7, 2010
Doumouchtsis SK et al: Are all brachial plexus injuries caused by shoulder dystocia? Obstet Gynecol Surv. 64(9):615-23, 2009
Malessy MJ et al: Obstetric brachial plexus injuries. Neurosurg Clin N Am. 20(1):1-14, v, 2009
Pearl ML: Shoulder problems in children with brachial plexus birth palsy: evaluation and management. J Am Acad Orthop Surg. 17(4):242-54, 2009
Hof JJ et al: What's new in MRI of peripheral nerve entrapment? Neurosurg Clin N Am. 19(4):583-95, vi, 2008
Schwartzman RJ et al: Brachial plexus traction injury: quantification of sensory abnormalities. Pain Med. 9(7):950-7, 2008
Smith AB et al: Magnetic resonance neurography in children with birth-related brachial plexus injury. Pediatr Radiol. 38(2):159-63, 2008
Haber HP et al: Sonography of brachial plexus traction injuries. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 186(6):1787-91, 2006
Medina LS et al: Diagnostic performance of MRI and MR myelography in infants with a brachial plexus birth injury. Pediatr Radiol. 36(12):1295-9, 2006
Yoshikawa T et al: Brachial plexus injury: clinical manifestations, conventional imaging findings, and the latest imaging techniques. Radiographics. 26 Suppl 1:S133-43, 2006
Benjamin K: Part 1. Injuries to the brachial plexus: mechanisms of injury and identification of risk factors. Adv Neonatal Care. 5(4):181-9, 2005
Waters PM: Update on management of pediatric brachial plexus palsy. J Pediatr Orthop. 25(1):116-26, 2005
Bowen BC et al: The brachial plexus: normal anatomy, pathology, and MR imaging. Neuroimaging Clin N Am. 14(1):59-85, vii-viii, 2004
Carlstedt T et al: Restoration of hand function and so called "breathing arm" after intraspinal repair of C5-T1 brachial plexus avulsion injury. Case report. Neurosurg Focus. 16(5):E7, 2004
Chappell KE et al: Magic angle effects in MR neurography. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 25(3):431-40, 2004
Ferraresi S et al: Reinnervation of the biceps in C5-7 brachial plexus avulsion injuries: results after distal bypass surgery. Neurosurg Focus. 16(5):E6, 2004
Filler AG et al: MR neurography and muscle MR imaging for image diagnosis of disorders affecting the peripheral nerves and musculature. Neurol Clin. 22(3):643-82, 2004
Haerle M et al: Management of complete obstetric brachial plexus lesions. J Pediatr Orthop. 24(2):194-200, 2004
Kim DH et al: Mechanisms of injury in operative brachial plexus lesions. Neurosurg Focus. 16(5):E2, 2004
Todd M et al: MR imaging of brachial plexus. Top Magn Reson Imaging. 15(2):113-25, 2004
Bertelli JA et al: Brachial plexus avulsion injury repairs with nerve transfers and nerve grafts directly implanted into the spinal cord yield partial recovery of shoulder and elbow movements. Neurosurgery. 52(6):1385-9; discussion 1389-90, 2003
Chen HJ et al: Combined dorsal root entry zone lesions and neural reconstruction for early rehabilitation of brachial plexus avulsion injury. Acta Neurochir Suppl. 87:95-7, 2003
DaSilva VR et al: Upper thoracic spinal cord herniation after traumatic nerve root avulsion. Case report and review of the literature. J Neurosurg. 99(3 Suppl):306-9, 2003
Gei AF et al: Brachial plexus paresis associated with fetal neck compression from forceps. Am J Perinatol. 20(6):289-91, 2003
Doi K et al: Cervical nerve root avulsion in brachial plexus injuries: magnetic resonance imaging classification and comparison with myelography and computerized tomography myelography. J Neurosurg. 96(3 Suppl):277-84, 2002
Dubuisson AS et al: Brachial plexus injury: a survey of 100 consecutive cases from a single service. Neurosurgery. 51(3):673-82; discussion 682-3, 2002
Birch R: Injuries to the brachial plexus: controversies and possibilities. Neurosurg Clin N Am. 12(2):285-94, 2001
Tavakkolizadeh A et al: Imaging of adult brachial plexus traction injuries. J Hand Surg Br. 26(3):183-91, 2001
Stretch injury or avulsion of ≥ 1 cervical roots, brachial plexus
IMAGING
General Features
CT Findings
MR Findings
Nonvascular Interventions
Imaging Recommendations
DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS
PATHOLOGY
General Features
Staging, Grading, & Classification
Gross Pathologic & Surgical Features
Microscopic Features
CLINICAL ISSUES
Presentation
Demographics
Natural History & Prognosis
Treatment
DIAGNOSTIC CHECKLIST
Consider
Image Interpretation Pearls
Selected References
Clifton WE et al: Delayed myelopathy in patients with traumatic preganglionic brachial plexus avulsion injuries. World Neurosurg. 122:e1562-9, 2019
Gunes A et al: Brachial plexus ultrasound and MRI in children with brachial plexus birth injury. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 39(9):1745-50, 2018
Kachramanoglou C et al: Long-term outcome of brachial plexus reimplantation after complete brachial plexus avulsion injury. World Neurosurg. 103:28-36, 2017
Lutz AM et al: MR imaging of the brachial plexus. Neuroimaging Clin N Am. 24(1):91-108, 2014
Chhabra A et al: High-resolution 3T MR neurography of the brachial plexus and its branches, with emphasis on 3D imaging. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 34(3):486-97, 2013
Rhee PC et al: Concomitant traumatic spinal cord and brachial plexus injuries in adult patients. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 93(24):2271-7, 2011
Aralasmak A et al: MR imaging findings in brachial plexopathy with thoracic outlet syndrome. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 31(3):410-7, 2010
Doumouchtsis SK et al: Are all brachial plexus injuries caused by shoulder dystocia? Obstet Gynecol Surv. 64(9):615-23, 2009
Malessy MJ et al: Obstetric brachial plexus injuries. Neurosurg Clin N Am. 20(1):1-14, v, 2009
Pearl ML: Shoulder problems in children with brachial plexus birth palsy: evaluation and management. J Am Acad Orthop Surg. 17(4):242-54, 2009
Hof JJ et al: What's new in MRI of peripheral nerve entrapment? Neurosurg Clin N Am. 19(4):583-95, vi, 2008
Schwartzman RJ et al: Brachial plexus traction injury: quantification of sensory abnormalities. Pain Med. 9(7):950-7, 2008
Smith AB et al: Magnetic resonance neurography in children with birth-related brachial plexus injury. Pediatr Radiol. 38(2):159-63, 2008
Haber HP et al: Sonography of brachial plexus traction injuries. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 186(6):1787-91, 2006
Medina LS et al: Diagnostic performance of MRI and MR myelography in infants with a brachial plexus birth injury. Pediatr Radiol. 36(12):1295-9, 2006
Yoshikawa T et al: Brachial plexus injury: clinical manifestations, conventional imaging findings, and the latest imaging techniques. Radiographics. 26 Suppl 1:S133-43, 2006
Benjamin K: Part 1. Injuries to the brachial plexus: mechanisms of injury and identification of risk factors. Adv Neonatal Care. 5(4):181-9, 2005
Waters PM: Update on management of pediatric brachial plexus palsy. J Pediatr Orthop. 25(1):116-26, 2005
Bowen BC et al: The brachial plexus: normal anatomy, pathology, and MR imaging. Neuroimaging Clin N Am. 14(1):59-85, vii-viii, 2004
Carlstedt T et al: Restoration of hand function and so called "breathing arm" after intraspinal repair of C5-T1 brachial plexus avulsion injury. Case report. Neurosurg Focus. 16(5):E7, 2004
Chappell KE et al: Magic angle effects in MR neurography. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 25(3):431-40, 2004
Ferraresi S et al: Reinnervation of the biceps in C5-7 brachial plexus avulsion injuries: results after distal bypass surgery. Neurosurg Focus. 16(5):E6, 2004
Filler AG et al: MR neurography and muscle MR imaging for image diagnosis of disorders affecting the peripheral nerves and musculature. Neurol Clin. 22(3):643-82, 2004
Haerle M et al: Management of complete obstetric brachial plexus lesions. J Pediatr Orthop. 24(2):194-200, 2004
Kim DH et al: Mechanisms of injury in operative brachial plexus lesions. Neurosurg Focus. 16(5):E2, 2004
Todd M et al: MR imaging of brachial plexus. Top Magn Reson Imaging. 15(2):113-25, 2004
Bertelli JA et al: Brachial plexus avulsion injury repairs with nerve transfers and nerve grafts directly implanted into the spinal cord yield partial recovery of shoulder and elbow movements. Neurosurgery. 52(6):1385-9; discussion 1389-90, 2003
Chen HJ et al: Combined dorsal root entry zone lesions and neural reconstruction for early rehabilitation of brachial plexus avulsion injury. Acta Neurochir Suppl. 87:95-7, 2003
DaSilva VR et al: Upper thoracic spinal cord herniation after traumatic nerve root avulsion. Case report and review of the literature. J Neurosurg. 99(3 Suppl):306-9, 2003
Gei AF et al: Brachial plexus paresis associated with fetal neck compression from forceps. Am J Perinatol. 20(6):289-91, 2003
Doi K et al: Cervical nerve root avulsion in brachial plexus injuries: magnetic resonance imaging classification and comparison with myelography and computerized tomography myelography. J Neurosurg. 96(3 Suppl):277-84, 2002
Dubuisson AS et al: Brachial plexus injury: a survey of 100 consecutive cases from a single service. Neurosurgery. 51(3):673-82; discussion 682-3, 2002
Birch R: Injuries to the brachial plexus: controversies and possibilities. Neurosurg Clin N Am. 12(2):285-94, 2001
Tavakkolizadeh A et al: Imaging of adult brachial plexus traction injuries. J Hand Surg Br. 26(3):183-91, 2001
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