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KEY FACTS
Terminology
Imaging
Pathology
Clinical Issues
TERMINOLOGY
Definitions
- Pregestational diabetes (type I or II): Diabetes mellitus diagnosis predates pregnancy
- Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM): Any degree of glucose intolerance initially diagnosed during pregnancy
- Diagnosis by oral glucose tolerance test from 24-28 weeks gestation
- GDM, by definition, resolves following pregnancy, although recurrence in subsequent pregnancies is common
- Increased risk of developing type II diabetes (40-50% within 10 years)
- Controversy exists regarding risk of anomalies in GDM
- Anomalies in GDM may reflect undiagnosed type II diabetic
IMAGING
General Features
Ultrasonographic Findings
Imaging Recommendations
DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS
PATHOLOGY
General Features
Staging, Grading, & Classification
Microscopic Features
CLINICAL ISSUES
Presentation
Natural History & Prognosis
Treatment
Selected References
- Bohuslavova R et al: Gene expression profiling of changes induced by maternal diabetes in the embryonic heart. Reprod Toxicol. 57:147-56, 2015
- Dong D et al: New development of the yolk sac theory in diabetic embryopathy: molecular mechanism and link to structural birth defects. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 214(2): 192-202, 2015
- Dong D et al: Maternal diabetes triggers DNA damage and DNA damage response in neurulation stage embryos through oxidative stress. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 467(2):407-12, 2015
- Gabbay-Benziv R et al: Birth defects in pregestational diabetes: Defect range, glycemic threshold and pathogenesis. World J Diabetes. 6(3):481-8, 2015
- López-Escobar B et al: The effect of maternal diabetes on the Wnt-PCP pathway during embryogenesis as reflected in the developing mouse eye. Dis Model Mech. 8(2):157-68, 2015
- Mitanchez D et al: The offspring of the diabetic mother--short- and long-term implications. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol. 29(2):256-69, 2015
- Ornoy A et al: Effect of maternal diabetes on the embryo, fetus, and children: congenital anomalies, genetic and epigenetic changes and developmental outcomes. Birth Defects Res C Embryo Today. 105(1):53-72, 2015
- Wang F et al: Advances in revealing the molecular targets downstream of oxidative stress-induced proapoptotic kinase signaling in diabetic embryopathy. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 213(2):125-34, 2015
- Wang F et al: Oxidative stress is responsible for maternal diabetes-impaired transforming growth factor beta signaling in the developing mouse heart. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 212(5):650.e1-11, 2015
- Wang F et al: Dominant negative FADD dissipates the proapoptotic signalosome of the unfolded protein response in diabetic embryopathy. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 309(10):E861-73, 2015
- Yang P et al: Decoding the oxidative stress hypothesis in diabetic embryopathy through proapoptotic kinase signaling. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 212(5):569-79, 2015
- Zhong J et al: Punicalagin exerts protective effect against high glucose-induced cellular stress and neural tube defects. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 467(2):179-84, 2015
- El Hajj N et al: Epigenetics and life-long consequences of an adverse nutritional and diabetic intrauterine environment. Reproduction. 148(6):R111-20, 2014
- Moreli JB et al: DNA damage and its cellular response in mother and fetus exposed to hyperglycemic environment. Biomed Res Int. 2014:676758, 2014
- Persson M et al: Perinatal outcome in relation to fetal sex in offspring to mothers with pre-gestational and gestational diabetes--a population-based study. Diabet Med. 31(9):1047-54, 2014
- Wei D et al: Increased DNA methyltransferase 3b (Dnmt3b)-mediated CpG island methylation stimulated by oxidative stress inhibits expression of a gene required for neural tube and neural crest development in diabetic pregnancy. Diabetes. 63(10):3512-22, 2014
- Zhao Z: TGFβ and Wnt in cardiac outflow tract defects in offspring of diabetic pregnancies. Birth Defects Res B Dev Reprod Toxicol. 101(5):364-70, 2014
- Castori M: Diabetic embryopathy: a developmental perspective from fertilization to adulthood. Mol Syndromol. 4(1-2):74-86, 2013
- Heerwagen MJ et al: Maternal obesity and fetal metabolic programming: a fertile epigenetic soil. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 299(3):R711-22, 2010
- Lisowski LA et al: Congenital heart disease in pregnancies complicated by maternal diabetes mellitus. An international clinical collaboration, literature review, and meta-analysis. Herz. 35(1):19-26, 2010
- Adam MP et al: Preaxial hallucal polydactyly as a marker for diabetic embryopathy. Birth Defects Res A Clin Mol Teratol. 85(1):13-9, 2009
- Sugimura Y et al: Prevention of neural tube defects by loss of function of inducible nitric oxide synthase in fetuses of a mouse model of streptozotocin-induced diabetes. Diabetologia. 52(5):962-71, 2009
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Tables
KEY FACTS
Terminology
Imaging
Pathology
Clinical Issues
TERMINOLOGY
Definitions
- Pregestational diabetes (type I or II): Diabetes mellitus diagnosis predates pregnancy
- Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM): Any degree of glucose intolerance initially diagnosed during pregnancy
- Diagnosis by oral glucose tolerance test from 24-28 weeks gestation
- GDM, by definition, resolves following pregnancy, although recurrence in subsequent pregnancies is common
- Increased risk of developing type II diabetes (40-50% within 10 years)
- Controversy exists regarding risk of anomalies in GDM
- Anomalies in GDM may reflect undiagnosed type II diabetic
IMAGING
General Features
Ultrasonographic Findings
Imaging Recommendations
DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS
PATHOLOGY
General Features
Staging, Grading, & Classification
Microscopic Features
CLINICAL ISSUES
Presentation
Natural History & Prognosis
Treatment
Selected References
- Bohuslavova R et al: Gene expression profiling of changes induced by maternal diabetes in the embryonic heart. Reprod Toxicol. 57:147-56, 2015
- Dong D et al: New development of the yolk sac theory in diabetic embryopathy: molecular mechanism and link to structural birth defects. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 214(2): 192-202, 2015
- Dong D et al: Maternal diabetes triggers DNA damage and DNA damage response in neurulation stage embryos through oxidative stress. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 467(2):407-12, 2015
- Gabbay-Benziv R et al: Birth defects in pregestational diabetes: Defect range, glycemic threshold and pathogenesis. World J Diabetes. 6(3):481-8, 2015
- López-Escobar B et al: The effect of maternal diabetes on the Wnt-PCP pathway during embryogenesis as reflected in the developing mouse eye. Dis Model Mech. 8(2):157-68, 2015
- Mitanchez D et al: The offspring of the diabetic mother--short- and long-term implications. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol. 29(2):256-69, 2015
- Ornoy A et al: Effect of maternal diabetes on the embryo, fetus, and children: congenital anomalies, genetic and epigenetic changes and developmental outcomes. Birth Defects Res C Embryo Today. 105(1):53-72, 2015
- Wang F et al: Advances in revealing the molecular targets downstream of oxidative stress-induced proapoptotic kinase signaling in diabetic embryopathy. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 213(2):125-34, 2015
- Wang F et al: Oxidative stress is responsible for maternal diabetes-impaired transforming growth factor beta signaling in the developing mouse heart. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 212(5):650.e1-11, 2015
- Wang F et al: Dominant negative FADD dissipates the proapoptotic signalosome of the unfolded protein response in diabetic embryopathy. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 309(10):E861-73, 2015
- Yang P et al: Decoding the oxidative stress hypothesis in diabetic embryopathy through proapoptotic kinase signaling. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 212(5):569-79, 2015
- Zhong J et al: Punicalagin exerts protective effect against high glucose-induced cellular stress and neural tube defects. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 467(2):179-84, 2015
- El Hajj N et al: Epigenetics and life-long consequences of an adverse nutritional and diabetic intrauterine environment. Reproduction. 148(6):R111-20, 2014
- Moreli JB et al: DNA damage and its cellular response in mother and fetus exposed to hyperglycemic environment. Biomed Res Int. 2014:676758, 2014
- Persson M et al: Perinatal outcome in relation to fetal sex in offspring to mothers with pre-gestational and gestational diabetes--a population-based study. Diabet Med. 31(9):1047-54, 2014
- Wei D et al: Increased DNA methyltransferase 3b (Dnmt3b)-mediated CpG island methylation stimulated by oxidative stress inhibits expression of a gene required for neural tube and neural crest development in diabetic pregnancy. Diabetes. 63(10):3512-22, 2014
- Zhao Z: TGFβ and Wnt in cardiac outflow tract defects in offspring of diabetic pregnancies. Birth Defects Res B Dev Reprod Toxicol. 101(5):364-70, 2014
- Castori M: Diabetic embryopathy: a developmental perspective from fertilization to adulthood. Mol Syndromol. 4(1-2):74-86, 2013
- Heerwagen MJ et al: Maternal obesity and fetal metabolic programming: a fertile epigenetic soil. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 299(3):R711-22, 2010
- Lisowski LA et al: Congenital heart disease in pregnancies complicated by maternal diabetes mellitus. An international clinical collaboration, literature review, and meta-analysis. Herz. 35(1):19-26, 2010
- Adam MP et al: Preaxial hallucal polydactyly as a marker for diabetic embryopathy. Birth Defects Res A Clin Mol Teratol. 85(1):13-9, 2009
- Sugimura Y et al: Prevention of neural tube defects by loss of function of inducible nitric oxide synthase in fetuses of a mouse model of streptozotocin-induced diabetes. Diabetologia. 52(5):962-71, 2009
