LM: Congenital vascular malformation composed of embryonic lymphatic sacs
Venolymphatic malformation (VLM): Combined elements of venous malformation & lymphatic malformation in same lesion
IMAGING
General Features
CT Findings
MR Findings
Ultrasonographic Findings
Imaging Recommendations
DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS
PATHOLOGY
General Features
Staging, Grading, & Classification
Gross Pathologic & Surgical Features
Microscopic Features
CLINICAL ISSUES
Presentation
Demographics
Natural History & Prognosis
Treatment
DIAGNOSTIC CHECKLIST
Consider
Image Interpretation Pearls
Selected References
Sodhi KS et al: Role of high resolution ultrasound in parotid lesions in children. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 75(11):1353-8, 2011
Wiegand S et al: Lymphatic malformations involving the parotid gland. Eur J Pediatr Surg. 21(4):242-5, 2011
Boardman SJ et al: Multimodality treatment of pediatric lymphatic malformations of the head and neck using surgery and sclerotherapy. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 136(3):270-6, 2010
Bloom DC et al: Management of lymphatic malformations and macroglossia: results of a national treatment survey. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 73(8):1114-8, 2009
Castro EC et al: Prox-1 and VEGFR3 antibodies are superior to D2-40 in identifying endothelial cells of lymphatic malformations--a proposal of a new immunohistochemical panel to differentiate lymphatic from other vascular malformations. Pediatr Dev Pathol. 12(3):187-94, 2009
Chen WL et al: Surgical excision of cervicofacial giant macrocystic lymphatic malformations in infants and children. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 73(6):833-7, 2009
Duyka LJ et al: Progesterone receptors identified in vascular malformations of the head and neck. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 141(4):491-5, 2009
Poldervaart MT et al: Treatment of lymphatic malformations with OK-432 (Picibanil): review of the literature. J Craniofac Surg. 20(4):1159-62, 2009
Shiels WE 2nd et al: Percutaneous treatment of lymphatic malformations. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 141(2):219-24, 2009
Nehra D et al: Doxycycline sclerotherapy as primary treatment of head and neck lymphatic malformations in children. J Pediatr Surg. 43(3):451-60, 2008
Bisdorff A et al: Intracranial vascular anomalies in patients with periorbital lymphatic and lymphaticovenous malformations. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 28(2):335-41, 2007
Cordes BM et al: Doxycycline sclerotherapy as the primary treatment for head and neck lymphatic malformations. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 137(6):962-4, 2007
Grimmer JF et al: Radiofrequency ablation of microcystic lymphatic malformation in the oral cavity. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 132(11):1251-6, 2006
Makariou E et al: Cystic hygroma of the neck: association with a growing venous aneurysm. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 24(10):2102-4, 2003
Giguere CM et al: New treatment options for lymphangioma in infants and children. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 111(12 Pt 1):1066-75, 2002
Elden LM et al: Accuracy and usefulness of radiographic assessment of cervical neck infections in children. J Otolaryngol. 30(2):82-9, 2001
Fordham LA et al: Imaging of congenital vascular and lymphatic anomalies of the head and neck. Neuroimaging Clin N Am. 10(1):117-36, viii, 2000
Lev S et al: Imaging of cystic lesions. Radiol Clin North Am. 38(5):1013-27, 2000
Castellote A et al: Cervicothoracic lesions in infants and children. Radiographics. 19(3):583-600, 1999
Koeller KK et al: Congenital cystic masses of the neck: radiologic-pathologic correlation. Radiographics. 19(1):121-46; quiz 152-3, 1999
Fung K et al: Impact of magnetic resonance imaging on the surgical management of cystic hygromas. J Pediatr Surg. 33(6):839-41, 1998
Katz SE et al: Combined venous lymphatic malformations of the orbit (so-called lymphangiomas). Association with noncontiguous intracranial vascular anomalies. Ophthalmology. 105(1):176-84, 1998
Quinn TM et al: Prenatal magnetic resonance imaging enhances fetal diagnosis. J Pediatr Surg. 33(4):553-8, 1998
Fageeh N et al: Management of head and neck lymphatic malformations in children. J Otolaryngol. 26(4):253-8, 1997
Borecky N et al: Imaging of cervico-thoracic lymphangiomas in children. Pediatr Radiol. 25(2):127-30, 1995
Molitch HI et al: Percutaneous sclerotherapy of lymphangiomas. Radiology. 194(2):343-7, 1995
Zadvinskis DP et al: Congenital malformations of the cervicothoracic lymphatic system: embryology and pathogenesis. Radiographics. 12(6):1175-89, 1992
Caro PA et al: Computed tomography in the diagnosis of lymphangiomas in infants and children. Clin Imaging. 15(1):41-6, 1991
Gelbert F et al: MR imaging of head and neck vascular malformations. J Magn Reson Imaging. 1(5):579-84, 1991
Yuh WT et al: Magnetic resonance imaging of pediatric head and neck cystic hygromas. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 100(9 Pt 1):737-42, 1991
Som PM et al: Hemorrhaged cystic hygroma and facial nerve paralysis: CT and MR findings. J Comput Assist Tomogr. 14(4):668-71, 1990
Mulliken JB et al: Hemangiomas and vascular malformations in infants and children: a classification based on endothelial characteristics. Plast Reconstr Surg. 69(3):412-22, 1982
Bill AH Jr et al: A unified concept of lymphangioma and cystic hygroma. Surg Gynecol Obstet. 120:79-86, 1965
LM: Congenital vascular malformation composed of embryonic lymphatic sacs
Venolymphatic malformation (VLM): Combined elements of venous malformation & lymphatic malformation in same lesion
IMAGING
General Features
CT Findings
MR Findings
Ultrasonographic Findings
Imaging Recommendations
DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS
PATHOLOGY
General Features
Staging, Grading, & Classification
Gross Pathologic & Surgical Features
Microscopic Features
CLINICAL ISSUES
Presentation
Demographics
Natural History & Prognosis
Treatment
DIAGNOSTIC CHECKLIST
Consider
Image Interpretation Pearls
Selected References
Sodhi KS et al: Role of high resolution ultrasound in parotid lesions in children. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 75(11):1353-8, 2011
Wiegand S et al: Lymphatic malformations involving the parotid gland. Eur J Pediatr Surg. 21(4):242-5, 2011
Boardman SJ et al: Multimodality treatment of pediatric lymphatic malformations of the head and neck using surgery and sclerotherapy. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 136(3):270-6, 2010
Bloom DC et al: Management of lymphatic malformations and macroglossia: results of a national treatment survey. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 73(8):1114-8, 2009
Castro EC et al: Prox-1 and VEGFR3 antibodies are superior to D2-40 in identifying endothelial cells of lymphatic malformations--a proposal of a new immunohistochemical panel to differentiate lymphatic from other vascular malformations. Pediatr Dev Pathol. 12(3):187-94, 2009
Chen WL et al: Surgical excision of cervicofacial giant macrocystic lymphatic malformations in infants and children. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 73(6):833-7, 2009
Duyka LJ et al: Progesterone receptors identified in vascular malformations of the head and neck. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 141(4):491-5, 2009
Poldervaart MT et al: Treatment of lymphatic malformations with OK-432 (Picibanil): review of the literature. J Craniofac Surg. 20(4):1159-62, 2009
Shiels WE 2nd et al: Percutaneous treatment of lymphatic malformations. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 141(2):219-24, 2009
Nehra D et al: Doxycycline sclerotherapy as primary treatment of head and neck lymphatic malformations in children. J Pediatr Surg. 43(3):451-60, 2008
Bisdorff A et al: Intracranial vascular anomalies in patients with periorbital lymphatic and lymphaticovenous malformations. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 28(2):335-41, 2007
Cordes BM et al: Doxycycline sclerotherapy as the primary treatment for head and neck lymphatic malformations. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 137(6):962-4, 2007
Grimmer JF et al: Radiofrequency ablation of microcystic lymphatic malformation in the oral cavity. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 132(11):1251-6, 2006
Makariou E et al: Cystic hygroma of the neck: association with a growing venous aneurysm. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 24(10):2102-4, 2003
Giguere CM et al: New treatment options for lymphangioma in infants and children. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 111(12 Pt 1):1066-75, 2002
Elden LM et al: Accuracy and usefulness of radiographic assessment of cervical neck infections in children. J Otolaryngol. 30(2):82-9, 2001
Fordham LA et al: Imaging of congenital vascular and lymphatic anomalies of the head and neck. Neuroimaging Clin N Am. 10(1):117-36, viii, 2000
Lev S et al: Imaging of cystic lesions. Radiol Clin North Am. 38(5):1013-27, 2000
Castellote A et al: Cervicothoracic lesions in infants and children. Radiographics. 19(3):583-600, 1999
Koeller KK et al: Congenital cystic masses of the neck: radiologic-pathologic correlation. Radiographics. 19(1):121-46; quiz 152-3, 1999
Fung K et al: Impact of magnetic resonance imaging on the surgical management of cystic hygromas. J Pediatr Surg. 33(6):839-41, 1998
Katz SE et al: Combined venous lymphatic malformations of the orbit (so-called lymphangiomas). Association with noncontiguous intracranial vascular anomalies. Ophthalmology. 105(1):176-84, 1998
Quinn TM et al: Prenatal magnetic resonance imaging enhances fetal diagnosis. J Pediatr Surg. 33(4):553-8, 1998
Fageeh N et al: Management of head and neck lymphatic malformations in children. J Otolaryngol. 26(4):253-8, 1997
Borecky N et al: Imaging of cervico-thoracic lymphangiomas in children. Pediatr Radiol. 25(2):127-30, 1995
Molitch HI et al: Percutaneous sclerotherapy of lymphangiomas. Radiology. 194(2):343-7, 1995
Zadvinskis DP et al: Congenital malformations of the cervicothoracic lymphatic system: embryology and pathogenesis. Radiographics. 12(6):1175-89, 1992
Caro PA et al: Computed tomography in the diagnosis of lymphangiomas in infants and children. Clin Imaging. 15(1):41-6, 1991
Gelbert F et al: MR imaging of head and neck vascular malformations. J Magn Reson Imaging. 1(5):579-84, 1991
Yuh WT et al: Magnetic resonance imaging of pediatric head and neck cystic hygromas. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 100(9 Pt 1):737-42, 1991
Som PM et al: Hemorrhaged cystic hygroma and facial nerve paralysis: CT and MR findings. J Comput Assist Tomogr. 14(4):668-71, 1990
Mulliken JB et al: Hemangiomas and vascular malformations in infants and children: a classification based on endothelial characteristics. Plast Reconstr Surg. 69(3):412-22, 1982
Bill AH Jr et al: A unified concept of lymphangioma and cystic hygroma. Surg Gynecol Obstet. 120:79-86, 1965
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