Renal artery stenosis (RAS): Fixed narrowing of renal artery (main or branch vessels)
May lead to refractory HTN, ischemic nephropathy, &/or pulmonary edema
Renal trauma grade
Grade 1
Small parenchymal contusion
Stable subcapsular hematoma
Treatment: Conservative
Grade 2
Laceration < 1 cm in depth
Stable perirenal hematoma
Treatment: Conservative
Grade 3
Laceration > 1 cm in depth
No extension into collecting system
Treatment: Conservative if stable, angiogram ± intervention if ongoing blood loss or hemodynamically unstable
Grade 4
Laceration that extends into collecting system
Vascular injury of main renal artery or vein
Expanding subcapsular or perinephric hematomas
Treatment: Angiogram and embolization
Grade 5
Avulsion of renal hilum with devascularization of kidney
Complete laceration or thrombosis of main renal artery or vein
Ureteropelvic junction avulsion
Shattered kidney
Treatment: Varied; nephrectomy often performed vs. observation if hemodynamically stable
Angiomyolipoma (AML)
Benign hamartomatous tumors
Variable amounts of blood vessels/muscle/fat
Abnormal blood vessels
No internal elastic lamina, disordered fibrotic smooth muscle cells
Prone to intratumoral aneurysm formation and rupture
80% sporadic
Typically unilateral; often static/slowly growing
20% associated with tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC)
Often bilateral/large; progressive growth
Renal artery aneurysm (RAA)
2nd most common visceral aneurysm (15-22%) after splenic
Congenital causes (e.g., Ehlers-Danlos)
Acquired causes: Atherosclerosis/degenerative
Often asymptomatic
Possible symptoms
HTN/renal insufficiency from microemboli
Hematuria/flank pain from aneurysm rupture
Tend to occur at bifurcation of main renal artery
Epidemiology/Pathophysiology of Renal Artery Stenosis
Pathophysiology
Stenosis causes decreased renal perfusion
Renin released by juxtaglomerular cells
Renin activates angiotensin II production
Angiotensin II production causes efferent arteriole constriction and aldosterone elevation, leading to sodium/water retention
Causes
Atherosclerosis (90%)
Causative in 0.5-10.0% of all patients with HTN, ~ 30% of patients with accelerated HTN
Risk factors similar to atherosclerosis elsewhere
Affects ostium/proximal 1/3 of renal artery
Stenting definitively better than percutaneous transluminal angioplasty (PTA) for ostial atherosclerotic lesions
Fibromuscular dysplasia (FMD) (10%)
F > M (3-4:1)
Noninflammatory vasculitis
Typically involves mid and distal main renal artery
Beaded appearance from alternating areas of aneurysmal dilation and stenosis
Long-segment stenosis of midrenal artery is medial hypoplasia or intimal fibroplasia subtypes of FMD seen in very young patients
Angioplasty alone effective
Stent reserved for PTA failure/restenosis/complications (i.e., dissection, rupture)
Renal transplant arterial stenosis
Affects 5-10% of transplants
Causes
External compression by peritransplant fibrosis
Kink points at anastomosis
Injury from vascular clamp used during surgery
Acute renal ischemia
Embolism from proximal source (e.g., atrial fibrillation or aortic plaque)
In situ thrombosis of stenotic renal artery
Iatrogenic from endovascular intervention
PREPROCEDURE
Indications
Contraindications
Preprocedure Imaging
Getting Started
PROCEDURE
Patient Position/Location
Equipment Preparation
Procedure Steps
Findings and Reporting
Alternative Procedures/Therapies
POST PROCEDURE
Things to Do
OUTCOMES
Problems
Complications
Expected Outcomes
Selected References
Pini A et al: Assessment and management of transplant renal artery stenosis. a literature review. Ann Vasc Surg. 82:13-29, 2022
Restrepo JCÁ et al: New trends and evidence for the management of renal angiomyolipoma: a comprehensive narrative review of the literature. J Kidney Cancer VHL. 9(1):33-41, 2022
Lopez-Gonzalez DB et al: Interventional radiology in renal trauma. Semin Intervent Radiol. 38(1):113-22, 2021
Persu A et al: Beyond atherosclerosis and fibromuscular dysplasia: rare causes of renovascular hypertension. Hypertension. 78(4):898-911, 2021
Pisano A et al: Renal denervation for resistant hypertension. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 11:CD011499, 2021
Smith TA et al: Endovascular embolization in renal trauma: a narrative review. Ann Transl Med. 9(14):1198, 2021
Hatano T et al: Renal angiomyolipoma with tuberous sclerosis complex: how it differs from sporadic angiomyolipoma in both management and care. Asian J Surg. 43(10):967-72, 2020
Sos TA: Commentary: evidence for benefits of renal artery stenting is not compelling and illustrates pitfalls of retrospective studies. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 31(4):598-600, 2020
Coccolini F et al: Kidney and uro-trauma: WSES-AAST guidelines. World J Emerg Surg. 14:54, 2019
Li M et al: Efficacy and safety of mTOR inhibitors (rapamycin and its analogues) for tuberous sclerosis complex: a meta-analysis. Orphanet J Rare Dis. 14(1):39, 2019
Prince M et al: When and how should we revascularize patients with atherosclerotic renal artery stenosis? JACC Cardiovasc Interv. 12(6):505-17, 2019
Razik A et al: Angiomyolipoma of the kidneys: current perspectives and challenges in diagnostic imaging and image-guided therapy. Curr Probl Diagn Radiol. 48(3):251-61, 2019
Ramaswamy RS et al: Renal embolization: current recommendations and rationale for clinical practice. Curr Urol Rep. 19(3):5, 2018
Duan XH et al: Urgent transcatheter arterial embolization for the treatment of ruptured renal angiomyolipoma with spontaneous hemorrhage. Acta Radiol. 57(11):1360-5, 2016
Flum AS et al: Update on the diagnosis and management of renal angiomyolipoma. J Urol. 195(4 Pt 1):834-46, 2016
Hassani M: Takayasu arteritis associated with severe renovascular hypertension. Saudi J Kidney Dis Transpl. 27(2):402-6, 2016
Kawarada O et al: Renovascular heart failure: heart failure in patients with atherosclerotic renal artery disease. Cardiovasc Interv Ther. 31(3):171-82, 2016
O'Connor PJ et al: Endovascular treatment of renal artery stenosis in the post CORAL era. Curr Treat Options Cardiovasc Med. 18(8):48, 2016
Sanidas EA et al: Renal fibromuscular dysplasia: a not so common entity of secondary hypertension. J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich). 18(3):240-6, 2016
Vassallo D et al: Progress in the treatment of atherosclerotic renovascular disease: the conceptual journey and the unanswered questions. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 31(10):1595-605, 2016
Andersen PE et al: Interventional treatment of renal angiomyolipoma: immediate results and clinical and radiological follow-up of 4.5 years. Acta Radiol Open. 4(7):2058460115592442, 2015
Biederman DM et al: Tailoring the endovascular management of transplant renal artery stenosis. Am J Transplant. 15(4):1039-49, 2015
Braga AF et al: Endovascular approach to transplant renal artery stenosis. Ann Transplant. 20:698-706, 2015
Chen W et al: Transplant renal artery stenosis: clinical manifestations, diagnosis and therapy. Clin Kidney J. 8(1):71-8, 2015
Diego-Nieto A et al: Severe renal artery stenosis after renal sympathetic denervation. JACC Cardiovasc Interv. 8(11):e193-4, 2015
Eom HJ et al: Transarterial embolisation of renal arteriovenous malformation: safety and efficacy in 24 patients with follow-up. Clin Radiol. 70(11):1177-84, 2015
Frey GT et al: Image-guided renal intervention. Radiol Clin North Am. 53(5):1005-19, 2015
Gross JA et al: Imaging of urinary system trauma. Radiol Clin North Am. 53(4):773-88, ix, 2015
Kautza B et al: "Management of blunt renal injury: what is new?". Eur J Trauma Emerg Surg. 41(3):251-8, 2015
Koukoulaki M et al: Successful endovascular treatment of transplant intrarenal artery stenosis in renal transplant recipients: two case reports. World J Transplant. 5(2):68-72, 2015
Minocha J et al: Transcatheter renal interventions: a review of established and emerging procedures. J Clin Imaging Sci. 5:5, 2015
Mohan IV et al: The management of renal artery stenosis: an alternative interpretation of ASTRAL and CORAL. Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg. 49(4):465-73, 2015
Muller A et al: Renal artery embolization-indications, technical approaches and outcomes. Nat Rev Nephrol. 11(5):288-301, 2015
Murray TE et al: Transarterial embolization of angiomyolipoma: a systematic review. J Urol. 194(3):635-9, 2015
Rankin T et al: Wunderlich syndrome: the role of the general surgeon. Am Surg. 81(3):E113-4, 2015
Sasongko TH et al: Rapamycin and its analogues (rapalogs) for tuberous sclerosis complex-associated tumors: a systematic review on non-randomized studies using meta-analysis. Orphanet J Rare Dis. 10:95, 2015
Schieda N et al: Ten uncommon and unusual variants of renal angiomyolipoma (AML): radiologic-pathologic correlation. Clin Radiol. 70(2):206-20, 2015
Serafetinides E et al: Review of the current management of upper urinary tract injuries by the EAU trauma guidelines panel. Eur Urol. 67(5):930-6, 2015
Tonolini M et al: Multidetector CT imaging of complications after laparoscopic nephron-sparing surgery. Insights Imaging. 6(4):465-78, 2015
Valente ES et al: Takayasu's arteritis with renal artery stenosis diagnosed in a patient with 65 years old. J Bras Nefrol. 37(4):501-4, 2015
Varennes L et al: Fibromuscular dysplasia: what the radiologist should know: a pictorial review. Insights Imaging. 6(3):295-307, 2015
Cooper CJ et al: Stenting and medical therapy for atherosclerotic renal-artery stenosis. N Engl J Med. 370(1):13-22, 2014
Konings R et al: Successful reversal of acute kidney failure by ultrasound-accelerated thrombolysis of an occluded renal artery. Case Rep Med. 2014:205646, 2014
Takeuchi N et al: Ruptured renal arteriovenous malformation successfully treated by catheter embolization: a case report. BMC Res Notes. 7:19, 2014
Tuna IS et al: Contrast-enhanced CT and MR imaging of renal vessels. Abdom Imaging. 39(4):875-91, 2014
Zhu MS et al: Factors that can minimize bleeding complications after renal biopsy. Int Urol Nephrol. 46(10):1969-75, 2014
Sam K et al: Percutaneous embolization of iatrogenic arterial kidney injuries: safety, efficacy, and impact on blood pressure and renal function. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 22(11):1563-8, 2011
Stone PA et al: Ten-year experience with renal artery in-stent stenosis. J Vasc Surg. 53(4):1026-31, 2011
Cura M et al: Vascular malformations and arteriovenous fistulas of the kidney. Acta Radiol. 51(2):144-9, 2010
Dworkin LD et al: Is there any reason to stent atherosclerotic renal artery stenosis? Am J Kidney Dis. 56(2):259-63, 2010
Patel RA et al: Tips and tricks in renal artery angioplasty and stenting: angiography, stent placement, embolic protection, complications, and contrast induced nephropathy. Minerva Cardioangiol. 58(1):113-26, 2010
Dworkin LD et al: Clinical practice. Renal-artery stenosis. N Engl J Med. 361(20):1972-8, 2009
Ginat DT et al: Transcatheter renal artery embolization: clinical applications and techniques. Tech Vasc Interv Radiol. 12(4):224-39, 2009
Lee SY et al: Embolization of renal angiomyolipomas: short-term and long-term outcomes, complications, and tumor shrinkage. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol. 32(6):1171-8, 2009
Safian RD et al: Refining the approach to renal artery revascularization. JACC Cardiovasc Interv. 2(3):161-74, 2009
Davies MG et al: The long-term outcomes of percutaneous therapy for renal artery fibromuscular dysplasia. J Vasc Surg. 48(4):865-71, 2008
Textor SC: Atherosclerotic renal artery stenosis: overtreated but underrated? J Am Soc Nephrol. 19(4):656-9, 2008
Kubota Y et al: Transcatheter arterial embolization with N-butyl-2-cyanoacrylate (Hystoacryl) in two treatments for huge renal arteriovenous malformation. Hinyokika Kiyo. 53(5):307-10, 2007
Cooper CJ et al: Stent revascularization for prevention of cardiovascular and renal events among patients with renal artery stenosis and systolic hypertension: rationale and design of the CORAL trial. Am Heart J. 152(1):59-66, 2006
Poulakis V et al: Treatment of renal-vascular injury by transcatheter embolization: immediate and long-term effects on renal function. J Endourol. 20(6):405-9, 2006
Chatziioannou A et al: Endovascular treatment of renal arteriovenous malformations. Urol Int. 74(1):89-91, 2005
Dinkel HP et al: Blunt renal trauma: minimally invasive management with microcatheter embolization experience in nine patients. Radiology 223:723-30, 2002
Yamakado K et al. Renal angiomyolipoma: relationships between tumor size, aneurysm formation and rupture. Radiology. 225:78-82, 2002
Kawashima A et al: Imaging of renal trauma: a comprehensive review. RadioGraphics. 21: 557-74, 2001
Defreyne L et al: Cirsoid renal arteriovenous malformation treated by endovascular embolization with n-butyl 2-cyanoacrylate. Eur Radiol. 10(5):772-5, 2000
Related Anatomy
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Related Differential Diagnoses
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References
Tables
Tables
KEY FACTS
Preprocedure
Procedure
Post Procedure
Outcomes
TERMINOLOGY
Definitions
Renal artery stenosis (RAS): Fixed narrowing of renal artery (main or branch vessels)
May lead to refractory HTN, ischemic nephropathy, &/or pulmonary edema
Renal trauma grade
Grade 1
Small parenchymal contusion
Stable subcapsular hematoma
Treatment: Conservative
Grade 2
Laceration < 1 cm in depth
Stable perirenal hematoma
Treatment: Conservative
Grade 3
Laceration > 1 cm in depth
No extension into collecting system
Treatment: Conservative if stable, angiogram ± intervention if ongoing blood loss or hemodynamically unstable
Grade 4
Laceration that extends into collecting system
Vascular injury of main renal artery or vein
Expanding subcapsular or perinephric hematomas
Treatment: Angiogram and embolization
Grade 5
Avulsion of renal hilum with devascularization of kidney
Complete laceration or thrombosis of main renal artery or vein
Ureteropelvic junction avulsion
Shattered kidney
Treatment: Varied; nephrectomy often performed vs. observation if hemodynamically stable
Angiomyolipoma (AML)
Benign hamartomatous tumors
Variable amounts of blood vessels/muscle/fat
Abnormal blood vessels
No internal elastic lamina, disordered fibrotic smooth muscle cells
Prone to intratumoral aneurysm formation and rupture
80% sporadic
Typically unilateral; often static/slowly growing
20% associated with tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC)
Often bilateral/large; progressive growth
Renal artery aneurysm (RAA)
2nd most common visceral aneurysm (15-22%) after splenic
Congenital causes (e.g., Ehlers-Danlos)
Acquired causes: Atherosclerosis/degenerative
Often asymptomatic
Possible symptoms
HTN/renal insufficiency from microemboli
Hematuria/flank pain from aneurysm rupture
Tend to occur at bifurcation of main renal artery
Epidemiology/Pathophysiology of Renal Artery Stenosis
Pathophysiology
Stenosis causes decreased renal perfusion
Renin released by juxtaglomerular cells
Renin activates angiotensin II production
Angiotensin II production causes efferent arteriole constriction and aldosterone elevation, leading to sodium/water retention
Causes
Atherosclerosis (90%)
Causative in 0.5-10.0% of all patients with HTN, ~ 30% of patients with accelerated HTN
Risk factors similar to atherosclerosis elsewhere
Affects ostium/proximal 1/3 of renal artery
Stenting definitively better than percutaneous transluminal angioplasty (PTA) for ostial atherosclerotic lesions
Fibromuscular dysplasia (FMD) (10%)
F > M (3-4:1)
Noninflammatory vasculitis
Typically involves mid and distal main renal artery
Beaded appearance from alternating areas of aneurysmal dilation and stenosis
Long-segment stenosis of midrenal artery is medial hypoplasia or intimal fibroplasia subtypes of FMD seen in very young patients
Angioplasty alone effective
Stent reserved for PTA failure/restenosis/complications (i.e., dissection, rupture)
Renal transplant arterial stenosis
Affects 5-10% of transplants
Causes
External compression by peritransplant fibrosis
Kink points at anastomosis
Injury from vascular clamp used during surgery
Acute renal ischemia
Embolism from proximal source (e.g., atrial fibrillation or aortic plaque)
In situ thrombosis of stenotic renal artery
Iatrogenic from endovascular intervention
PREPROCEDURE
Indications
Contraindications
Preprocedure Imaging
Getting Started
PROCEDURE
Patient Position/Location
Equipment Preparation
Procedure Steps
Findings and Reporting
Alternative Procedures/Therapies
POST PROCEDURE
Things to Do
OUTCOMES
Problems
Complications
Expected Outcomes
Selected References
Pini A et al: Assessment and management of transplant renal artery stenosis. a literature review. Ann Vasc Surg. 82:13-29, 2022
Restrepo JCÁ et al: New trends and evidence for the management of renal angiomyolipoma: a comprehensive narrative review of the literature. J Kidney Cancer VHL. 9(1):33-41, 2022
Lopez-Gonzalez DB et al: Interventional radiology in renal trauma. Semin Intervent Radiol. 38(1):113-22, 2021
Persu A et al: Beyond atherosclerosis and fibromuscular dysplasia: rare causes of renovascular hypertension. Hypertension. 78(4):898-911, 2021
Pisano A et al: Renal denervation for resistant hypertension. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 11:CD011499, 2021
Smith TA et al: Endovascular embolization in renal trauma: a narrative review. Ann Transl Med. 9(14):1198, 2021
Hatano T et al: Renal angiomyolipoma with tuberous sclerosis complex: how it differs from sporadic angiomyolipoma in both management and care. Asian J Surg. 43(10):967-72, 2020
Sos TA: Commentary: evidence for benefits of renal artery stenting is not compelling and illustrates pitfalls of retrospective studies. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 31(4):598-600, 2020
Coccolini F et al: Kidney and uro-trauma: WSES-AAST guidelines. World J Emerg Surg. 14:54, 2019
Li M et al: Efficacy and safety of mTOR inhibitors (rapamycin and its analogues) for tuberous sclerosis complex: a meta-analysis. Orphanet J Rare Dis. 14(1):39, 2019
Prince M et al: When and how should we revascularize patients with atherosclerotic renal artery stenosis? JACC Cardiovasc Interv. 12(6):505-17, 2019
Razik A et al: Angiomyolipoma of the kidneys: current perspectives and challenges in diagnostic imaging and image-guided therapy. Curr Probl Diagn Radiol. 48(3):251-61, 2019
Ramaswamy RS et al: Renal embolization: current recommendations and rationale for clinical practice. Curr Urol Rep. 19(3):5, 2018
Duan XH et al: Urgent transcatheter arterial embolization for the treatment of ruptured renal angiomyolipoma with spontaneous hemorrhage. Acta Radiol. 57(11):1360-5, 2016
Flum AS et al: Update on the diagnosis and management of renal angiomyolipoma. J Urol. 195(4 Pt 1):834-46, 2016
Hassani M: Takayasu arteritis associated with severe renovascular hypertension. Saudi J Kidney Dis Transpl. 27(2):402-6, 2016
Kawarada O et al: Renovascular heart failure: heart failure in patients with atherosclerotic renal artery disease. Cardiovasc Interv Ther. 31(3):171-82, 2016
O'Connor PJ et al: Endovascular treatment of renal artery stenosis in the post CORAL era. Curr Treat Options Cardiovasc Med. 18(8):48, 2016
Sanidas EA et al: Renal fibromuscular dysplasia: a not so common entity of secondary hypertension. J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich). 18(3):240-6, 2016
Vassallo D et al: Progress in the treatment of atherosclerotic renovascular disease: the conceptual journey and the unanswered questions. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 31(10):1595-605, 2016
Andersen PE et al: Interventional treatment of renal angiomyolipoma: immediate results and clinical and radiological follow-up of 4.5 years. Acta Radiol Open. 4(7):2058460115592442, 2015
Biederman DM et al: Tailoring the endovascular management of transplant renal artery stenosis. Am J Transplant. 15(4):1039-49, 2015
Braga AF et al: Endovascular approach to transplant renal artery stenosis. Ann Transplant. 20:698-706, 2015
Chen W et al: Transplant renal artery stenosis: clinical manifestations, diagnosis and therapy. Clin Kidney J. 8(1):71-8, 2015
Diego-Nieto A et al: Severe renal artery stenosis after renal sympathetic denervation. JACC Cardiovasc Interv. 8(11):e193-4, 2015
Eom HJ et al: Transarterial embolisation of renal arteriovenous malformation: safety and efficacy in 24 patients with follow-up. Clin Radiol. 70(11):1177-84, 2015
Frey GT et al: Image-guided renal intervention. Radiol Clin North Am. 53(5):1005-19, 2015
Gross JA et al: Imaging of urinary system trauma. Radiol Clin North Am. 53(4):773-88, ix, 2015
Kautza B et al: "Management of blunt renal injury: what is new?". Eur J Trauma Emerg Surg. 41(3):251-8, 2015
Koukoulaki M et al: Successful endovascular treatment of transplant intrarenal artery stenosis in renal transplant recipients: two case reports. World J Transplant. 5(2):68-72, 2015
Minocha J et al: Transcatheter renal interventions: a review of established and emerging procedures. J Clin Imaging Sci. 5:5, 2015
Mohan IV et al: The management of renal artery stenosis: an alternative interpretation of ASTRAL and CORAL. Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg. 49(4):465-73, 2015
Muller A et al: Renal artery embolization-indications, technical approaches and outcomes. Nat Rev Nephrol. 11(5):288-301, 2015
Murray TE et al: Transarterial embolization of angiomyolipoma: a systematic review. J Urol. 194(3):635-9, 2015
Rankin T et al: Wunderlich syndrome: the role of the general surgeon. Am Surg. 81(3):E113-4, 2015
Sasongko TH et al: Rapamycin and its analogues (rapalogs) for tuberous sclerosis complex-associated tumors: a systematic review on non-randomized studies using meta-analysis. Orphanet J Rare Dis. 10:95, 2015
Schieda N et al: Ten uncommon and unusual variants of renal angiomyolipoma (AML): radiologic-pathologic correlation. Clin Radiol. 70(2):206-20, 2015
Serafetinides E et al: Review of the current management of upper urinary tract injuries by the EAU trauma guidelines panel. Eur Urol. 67(5):930-6, 2015
Tonolini M et al: Multidetector CT imaging of complications after laparoscopic nephron-sparing surgery. Insights Imaging. 6(4):465-78, 2015
Valente ES et al: Takayasu's arteritis with renal artery stenosis diagnosed in a patient with 65 years old. J Bras Nefrol. 37(4):501-4, 2015
Varennes L et al: Fibromuscular dysplasia: what the radiologist should know: a pictorial review. Insights Imaging. 6(3):295-307, 2015
Cooper CJ et al: Stenting and medical therapy for atherosclerotic renal-artery stenosis. N Engl J Med. 370(1):13-22, 2014
Konings R et al: Successful reversal of acute kidney failure by ultrasound-accelerated thrombolysis of an occluded renal artery. Case Rep Med. 2014:205646, 2014
Takeuchi N et al: Ruptured renal arteriovenous malformation successfully treated by catheter embolization: a case report. BMC Res Notes. 7:19, 2014
Tuna IS et al: Contrast-enhanced CT and MR imaging of renal vessels. Abdom Imaging. 39(4):875-91, 2014
Zhu MS et al: Factors that can minimize bleeding complications after renal biopsy. Int Urol Nephrol. 46(10):1969-75, 2014
Sam K et al: Percutaneous embolization of iatrogenic arterial kidney injuries: safety, efficacy, and impact on blood pressure and renal function. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 22(11):1563-8, 2011
Stone PA et al: Ten-year experience with renal artery in-stent stenosis. J Vasc Surg. 53(4):1026-31, 2011
Cura M et al: Vascular malformations and arteriovenous fistulas of the kidney. Acta Radiol. 51(2):144-9, 2010
Dworkin LD et al: Is there any reason to stent atherosclerotic renal artery stenosis? Am J Kidney Dis. 56(2):259-63, 2010
Patel RA et al: Tips and tricks in renal artery angioplasty and stenting: angiography, stent placement, embolic protection, complications, and contrast induced nephropathy. Minerva Cardioangiol. 58(1):113-26, 2010
Dworkin LD et al: Clinical practice. Renal-artery stenosis. N Engl J Med. 361(20):1972-8, 2009
Ginat DT et al: Transcatheter renal artery embolization: clinical applications and techniques. Tech Vasc Interv Radiol. 12(4):224-39, 2009
Lee SY et al: Embolization of renal angiomyolipomas: short-term and long-term outcomes, complications, and tumor shrinkage. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol. 32(6):1171-8, 2009
Safian RD et al: Refining the approach to renal artery revascularization. JACC Cardiovasc Interv. 2(3):161-74, 2009
Davies MG et al: The long-term outcomes of percutaneous therapy for renal artery fibromuscular dysplasia. J Vasc Surg. 48(4):865-71, 2008
Textor SC: Atherosclerotic renal artery stenosis: overtreated but underrated? J Am Soc Nephrol. 19(4):656-9, 2008
Kubota Y et al: Transcatheter arterial embolization with N-butyl-2-cyanoacrylate (Hystoacryl) in two treatments for huge renal arteriovenous malformation. Hinyokika Kiyo. 53(5):307-10, 2007
Cooper CJ et al: Stent revascularization for prevention of cardiovascular and renal events among patients with renal artery stenosis and systolic hypertension: rationale and design of the CORAL trial. Am Heart J. 152(1):59-66, 2006
Poulakis V et al: Treatment of renal-vascular injury by transcatheter embolization: immediate and long-term effects on renal function. J Endourol. 20(6):405-9, 2006
Chatziioannou A et al: Endovascular treatment of renal arteriovenous malformations. Urol Int. 74(1):89-91, 2005
Dinkel HP et al: Blunt renal trauma: minimally invasive management with microcatheter embolization experience in nine patients. Radiology 223:723-30, 2002
Yamakado K et al. Renal angiomyolipoma: relationships between tumor size, aneurysm formation and rupture. Radiology. 225:78-82, 2002
Kawashima A et al: Imaging of renal trauma: a comprehensive review. RadioGraphics. 21: 557-74, 2001
Defreyne L et al: Cirsoid renal arteriovenous malformation treated by endovascular embolization with n-butyl 2-cyanoacrylate. Eur Radiol. 10(5):772-5, 2000
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