Excessive expiratory collapse of trachea or bronchi
May be purely intrinsic or in association with longstanding extrinsic compression
IMAGING
General Features
Radiographic Findings
CT Findings
MR Findings
Imaging Recommendations
DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS
PATHOLOGY
General Features
Staging, Grading, & Classification
CLINICAL ISSUES
Presentation
Demographics
Natural History & Prognosis
Treatment
DIAGNOSTIC CHECKLIST
Consider
Image Interpretation Pearls
Selected References
Poore TS et al: Vascular and pulmonary comorbidities in children with congenital EA/TEF. Pediatr Pulmonol. 56(2):571-7, 2021
Gunatilaka CC et al: Increased work of breathing due to tracheomalacia in neonates. Ann Am Thorac Soc. 17(10):1247-56, 2020
Hysinger EB et al: Ultrashort echo-time MRI for the assessment of tracheomalacia in neonates. Chest. 157(3):595-602, 2020
Léonard M et al: Co-dominant double aortic arch: a rare cause of vascular ring causing tracheomalacia in a child. Acta Cardiol. 1-2, 2020
Williams SP et al: Aortopexy for the management of paediatric tracheomalacia - the Alder Hey experience. J Laryngol Otol. 1-4, 2020
Cohen SL et al: Ultralow dose dynamic expiratory computed tomography for evaluation of tracheomalacia. J Comput Assist Tomogr. 43(2):307-11, 2019
Wallis C et al: ERS statement on tracheomalacia and bronchomalacia in children. Eur Respir J. 54(3), 2019
McInnis MC et al: Advanced technologies for imaging and visualization of the tracheobronchial tree: from computed tomography and MRI to virtual endoscopy. Thorac Surg Clin. 28(2):127-37, 2018
Mohakud S et al: Tracheomalacia with tracheal bronchus. Natl Med J India. 31(1):57, 2018
Shepard JO et al: Imaging of the trachea. Ann Cardiothorac Surg. 7(2):197-209, 2018
Ciet P et al: Magnetic resonance imaging in children: common problems and possible solutions for lung and airways imaging. Pediatr Radiol. 45(13):1901-15, 2015
Ciet P et al: Spirometer-controlled cine magnetic resonance imaging used to diagnose tracheobronchomalacia in paediatric patients. Eur Respir J. 43(1):115-24, 2014
Mitchell ME et al: Anterior tracheal suspension for tracheobronchomalacia in infants and children. Ann Thorac Surg. 98(4):1246-53, 2014
Vondrys D et al: First experience with biodegradable airway stents in children. Ann Thorac Surg. 92(5):1870-4, 2011
Lee EY et al: Expiratory volumetric MDCT evaluation of air trapping in pediatric patients with and without tracheomalacia. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 194(5):1210-5, 2010
Lee EY et al: MDCT assessment of tracheomalacia in symptomatic infants with mediastinal aortic vascular anomalies: preliminary technical experience. Pediatr Radiol. 38(1):82-8, 2008
Lee EY et al: MDCT evaluation of the prevalence of tracheomalacia in children with mediastinal aortic vascular anomalies. J Thorac Imaging. 23(4):258-65, 2008
Carden KA et al: Tracheomalacia and tracheobronchomalacia in children and adults: an in-depth review. Chest. 127(3):984-1005, 2005
Fraser RS et al: Upper airway obstruction. In: Fraser RS et al: Synopsis of Diseases of the Chest. 3rd ed. Saunders. 631-4, 2005
Boiselle PM et al: Tracheobronchomalacia: evolving role of dynamic multislice helical CT. Radiol Clin North Am. 41(3):627-36, 2003
Walner DL et al: Utility of radiographs in the evaluation of pediatric upper airway obstruction. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 108(4):378-83, 1999
Davis S et al: Effect of continuous positive airway pressure on forced expiratory flows in infants with tracheomalacia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 158(1):148-52, 1998
Paston F et al: Tracheomalacia. Pediatr Rev. 17(9):328, 1996
Jacobs IN et al: Tracheobronchomalacia in children. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 120(2):154-8, 1994
Mair EA et al: Pediatric tracheobronchomalacia and major airway collapse. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 101(4):300-9, 1992
Miller RW et al: Effectiveness of continuous positive airway pressure in the treatment of bronchomalacia in infants: a bronchoscopic documentation. Crit Care Med. 14(2):125-7, 1986
Holinger LD: Etiology of stridor in the neonate, infant and child. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 89(5 Pt 1):397-400, 1980
Related Anatomy
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References
Tables
Tables
KEY FACTS
Terminology
Imaging
Top Differential Diagnoses
Pathology
Clinical Issues
Diagnostic Checklist
TERMINOLOGY
Synonyms
Excessive dynamic airway collapse
Definitions
Excessive expiratory collapse of trachea or bronchi
May be purely intrinsic or in association with longstanding extrinsic compression
IMAGING
General Features
Radiographic Findings
CT Findings
MR Findings
Imaging Recommendations
DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS
PATHOLOGY
General Features
Staging, Grading, & Classification
CLINICAL ISSUES
Presentation
Demographics
Natural History & Prognosis
Treatment
DIAGNOSTIC CHECKLIST
Consider
Image Interpretation Pearls
Selected References
Poore TS et al: Vascular and pulmonary comorbidities in children with congenital EA/TEF. Pediatr Pulmonol. 56(2):571-7, 2021
Gunatilaka CC et al: Increased work of breathing due to tracheomalacia in neonates. Ann Am Thorac Soc. 17(10):1247-56, 2020
Hysinger EB et al: Ultrashort echo-time MRI for the assessment of tracheomalacia in neonates. Chest. 157(3):595-602, 2020
Léonard M et al: Co-dominant double aortic arch: a rare cause of vascular ring causing tracheomalacia in a child. Acta Cardiol. 1-2, 2020
Williams SP et al: Aortopexy for the management of paediatric tracheomalacia - the Alder Hey experience. J Laryngol Otol. 1-4, 2020
Cohen SL et al: Ultralow dose dynamic expiratory computed tomography for evaluation of tracheomalacia. J Comput Assist Tomogr. 43(2):307-11, 2019
Wallis C et al: ERS statement on tracheomalacia and bronchomalacia in children. Eur Respir J. 54(3), 2019
McInnis MC et al: Advanced technologies for imaging and visualization of the tracheobronchial tree: from computed tomography and MRI to virtual endoscopy. Thorac Surg Clin. 28(2):127-37, 2018
Mohakud S et al: Tracheomalacia with tracheal bronchus. Natl Med J India. 31(1):57, 2018
Shepard JO et al: Imaging of the trachea. Ann Cardiothorac Surg. 7(2):197-209, 2018
Ciet P et al: Magnetic resonance imaging in children: common problems and possible solutions for lung and airways imaging. Pediatr Radiol. 45(13):1901-15, 2015
Ciet P et al: Spirometer-controlled cine magnetic resonance imaging used to diagnose tracheobronchomalacia in paediatric patients. Eur Respir J. 43(1):115-24, 2014
Mitchell ME et al: Anterior tracheal suspension for tracheobronchomalacia in infants and children. Ann Thorac Surg. 98(4):1246-53, 2014
Vondrys D et al: First experience with biodegradable airway stents in children. Ann Thorac Surg. 92(5):1870-4, 2011
Lee EY et al: Expiratory volumetric MDCT evaluation of air trapping in pediatric patients with and without tracheomalacia. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 194(5):1210-5, 2010
Lee EY et al: MDCT assessment of tracheomalacia in symptomatic infants with mediastinal aortic vascular anomalies: preliminary technical experience. Pediatr Radiol. 38(1):82-8, 2008
Lee EY et al: MDCT evaluation of the prevalence of tracheomalacia in children with mediastinal aortic vascular anomalies. J Thorac Imaging. 23(4):258-65, 2008
Carden KA et al: Tracheomalacia and tracheobronchomalacia in children and adults: an in-depth review. Chest. 127(3):984-1005, 2005
Fraser RS et al: Upper airway obstruction. In: Fraser RS et al: Synopsis of Diseases of the Chest. 3rd ed. Saunders. 631-4, 2005
Boiselle PM et al: Tracheobronchomalacia: evolving role of dynamic multislice helical CT. Radiol Clin North Am. 41(3):627-36, 2003
Walner DL et al: Utility of radiographs in the evaluation of pediatric upper airway obstruction. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 108(4):378-83, 1999
Davis S et al: Effect of continuous positive airway pressure on forced expiratory flows in infants with tracheomalacia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 158(1):148-52, 1998
Paston F et al: Tracheomalacia. Pediatr Rev. 17(9):328, 1996
Jacobs IN et al: Tracheobronchomalacia in children. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 120(2):154-8, 1994
Mair EA et al: Pediatric tracheobronchomalacia and major airway collapse. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 101(4):300-9, 1992
Miller RW et al: Effectiveness of continuous positive airway pressure in the treatment of bronchomalacia in infants: a bronchoscopic documentation. Crit Care Med. 14(2):125-7, 1986
Holinger LD: Etiology of stridor in the neonate, infant and child. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 89(5 Pt 1):397-400, 1980
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